The semiconductor industry is converging on 3.5D as the next best option in advanced packaging, a hybrid approach that includes stacking logic chiplets and bonding them separately to a substrate shared by other components.

This assembly model satisfies the need for big increases in performance while sidestepping some of the thorniest issues in heterogeneous integration. It establishes a middle ground between 2.5D, which already is in widespread use inside of data centers, and full 3D-ICs, which the chip industry has been struggling to commercialize for the better part of a decade.

A 3.5D architecture offers several key advantages:

• It creates enough physical separation to effectively address thermal dissipation and noise.
• It provides a way to add more SRAM into high-speed designs. SRAM has been the go-to choice for processor cache since the mid-1960s, and remains an essential element for faster processing. But SRAM no longer scales at the same rate as digital transistors, so it is consuming more real estate (in percentage terms) at each new node. And because the size of a reticle is fixed, the best available option is to add area by stacking chiplets vertically.
• By thinning the interface between processing elements and memory, a 3.5D approach also can shorten the distances that signals need to travel and greatly improve processing speeds well beyond a planar implementation. This is essential with large language models and AI/ML, where the amount of data that needs to be processed quickly is exploding.

Chipmakers still point to fully integrated 3D-ICs as the best performing alternative to a planar SoC, but packing everything into a 3D configuration makes it harder to deal with physical effects. Thermal dissipation is probably the most difficult to contend with. Workloads can vary significantly, creating dynamic thermal gradients and trapping heat in unexpected places, which in turn reduce the lifespan and reliability of chips. On top of that, power and substrate noise become more problematic at each new node, as do concerns about electromagnetic interference.

“What the market has adopted first is high-performance chips, and those produce a lot of heat,” said Marc Swinnen, director of product marketing at Ansys. “They have gone for expensive cooling systems with a huge number of fans and heat sinks, and they have opted for silicon interposers, which arguably are some of the most expensive technologies for connecting chips together. But it also gives the highest performance and is very good for thermal because it matches the coefficient of thermal expansion. Thermal is one of the big reasons that’s been successful. In addition to that, you may want bigger systems with more stuff that you can’t fit on one chip. That’s just a reticle-size limitation. Another is heterogeneous integration, where you want multiple different processes, like an RF process or the I/O, which don’t need to be in 5nm.”

A 3.5D assembly also provides more flexibility to add additional processor cores, and higher yield because known good die can be manufactured and tested separately, a concept first pioneered by Xilinx in 2011 at 28nm.

3.5D is a loose amalgamation of all these approaches. It can include two to three chiplets stacked on top of each other, or even multiple stacks laid out horizontally.

“It’s limited vertical, and not just for thermal reasons,” said Bill Chen, fellow and senior technical advisor at ASE Group. “It’s also for performance reasons. But thermal is the limiting factor, and we’ve talked about many different materials to help with that — diamond and graphene — but that limitation is still there.”

This is why the most likely combination, at least initially, will be processors stacked on SRAM, which simplifies the cooling. The heat generated by high utilization of different processing elements can be removed with heat sinks or liquid cooling. And with one or more thinned out substrates, signals will travel shorter distances, which in turn uses less power to move data back and forth between processors and memory.

“Most likely, this is going to be logic over memory on a logic process,” said Javier DeLaCruz, fellow and senior director of Silicon Ops Engineering at Arm. “These are all contained within an SoC normally, but a portion of that is going to be SRAM, which does not scale very well from node to node. So having logic over memory and a logic process is really the winning solution, and that’s one of the better use cases for 3D because that’s what really shortens your connectivity. A processor generally doesn’t talk to another processor. They talk to each other through memory, so having the memory on a different floor with no latency between them is pretty attractive.”

The SRAM doesn’t necessarily have to be at the same node as the processors advanced node, which also helps with yield, and reliability. At a recent Samsung Foundry event, Taejoong Song, the company’s vice president of foundry business development, showed a roadmap of a 3.5D configuration using a 2nm chiplet stacked on a 4nm chiplet next year, and a 1.4nm chiplet on top of a 2nm chiplet in 2027.

Fig. 1: Samsung’s heterogeneous integration roadmap showing stacked DRAM (HBM), chiplets and co-packaged optics. Source: Samsung Foundry

Intel Foundry’s approach is similar in many ways. “Our 3.5D technology is implemented on a substrate with silicon bridges,” said Kevin O’Buckley, senior vice president and general manager of Foundry Services at Intel. “This is not an incredibly costly, low-yielding, multi-reticle form-factor silicon, or even RDL. We’re using thin silicon slices in a much more cost-efficient fashion to enable that die-to-die connectivity — even stacked die-to-die connectivity — through a silicon bridge. So you get the same advantages of silicon density, the same SI (signal integrity) performance of that bridge without having to put a giant monolithic interposer underneath the whole thing, which is both cost- and capacity-prohibitive. It’s working. It’s in the lab and it’s running.”

Fig. 2: Intel’s 3.5D model. Source: Intel

The strategy here is partly evolutionary — 3.5D has been in R&D for at least several years — and part revolutionary, because thinning out the interconnect layer, figuring out a way to handle these thinner interconnect layers, and how to bond them is still a work in progress. There is a potential for warping, cracking, or other latent defects, and dynamically configuring data paths to maximize throughput is an ongoing challenge. But there have been significant advances in thermal management on two- and three-chiplet stacks.

“There will be multiple solutions,” said C.P. Hung, vice president of corporate R&D at ASE. “For example, besides the device itself and an external heat sink, a lot of people will be adding immersion cooling or local liquid cooling. So for the packaging, you can probably also expect to see the implementation of a vapor chamber, which will add a good interface from the device itself to an external heat sink. With all these challenges, we also need to target a different pitch. For example, nowadays you see mass production with a 45 to 40 pitch. That is a typical bumping solution. We expect the industry to move to a 25 to 20 micron bump pitch. Then, to go further, we need hybrid bonding, which is a less than 10 micron pitch.”

Fig. 3: Today’s interposers support more than 100,000 I/Os at a 45m pitch. Source: ASE

Hybrid bonding solves another thorny problem, which is co-planarity across thousands of micro-bumps. “People are starting to realize that the densities we’re interconnecting require a level of flatness, which the guys who make traditional things to be bonded are having a hard time meeting with reasonable yield,” David Fromm, COO at Promex Industries. “That makes it hard to build them, and the thinking is, ‘So maybe we’ve got to do something else.’ You’re starting to see some of that.”

Taming the Hydra
Managing heat remains a challenge, even with all the latest advances and a 3.5D assembly, but the ability to isolate the thermal effects from other components is the best option available today, and possibly well into the future. Still, there are other issues to contend with. Even 2.5D isn’t easy, and a large percentage of the 2.5D implementations have been bespoke designs by large systems companies with very deep pockets.

One of the big remaining challenges is closing timing so that signals arrive at the right place at the right fraction of a second. This becomes harder as more elements are added into chips, and in a 3.5D or 3D-IC, this can be incredibly complex.

“Timing ultimately is the key,” said Sutirtha Kabir, R&D director at Synopsys. “It’s not guaranteed that at whatever your temperature is, you can use the same library for timing. So the question is how much thermal- and IR-aware timing do you have to do? These are big systems. You have to make sure your sign-off is converging. There are two things coming out. There are a bunch of multi-physics effects that are all clumped together. And yes, you could traditionally do one at a time as sign-off, but that isn’t going to work very well. You need to figure out how to solve these problems simultaneously. Ultimately, you’re doing one design. It’s not one for thermal, one for IR, one for timing. The second thing is the data is exploding. How do you efficiently handle the data, because you cannot wait for days and days of runtime and simulation and analysis?”

Physically assembling these devices isn’t easy, either. “The challenge here is really in the thermal, electrical, and mechanical connection of all these various die with different thicknesses and different coefficients of thermal expansion,” said Intel’s O’Buckley. “So with three die, you’ve got the die and an active base, and those are substantially thinned to enable them to come together. And then EMIB is in the substrate. There’s always intense thermal-mechanical qualification work done to manage not just the assembly, but to ensure in the final assembly — the second-level assembly when this is going through system-level card attach — that this thing stays together.”

And depending upon demands for speed, the interconnects and interconnect materials can change. “Hybrid bonding gives you, by far, the best signal and power density,” said Arm’s DeLaCruz. “And it gives you the best thermal conductivity, because you don’t have that underfill that you would otherwise have to put in between the die, which is a pretty significant barrier. This is likely where the industry will go. It’s just a matter of having the production base.”

Hybrid bonding has been used for years for image sensors using wafer-on-wafer connections. “The tricky part is going into the logic space, where you’re moving from wafer-on-wafer to a die-on-wafer process, which is more complex,” DeLaCruz said. “While it currently would cost more, that’s a temporary problem because there’s not much of an installed base to support it and drive down the cost. There’s really no expensive material or equipment costs.”

Toward mass customization
All of this is leading toward the goal of choosing chiplets from a menu and then rapidly connecting them into some sort of architecture that is proven to work. That may not materialize for years. But commercial chiplets will show up in advanced designs over the next couple years, most likely in high-bandwidth memory with a customized processor in the stack, with more following that path in the future.

At least part of this will depend on how standardized the processes for designing, manufacturing, and testing become. “We’re seeing a lot of 2.5D from customers able to secure silicon interposers,” said Ruben Fuentes, vice president for the Design Center at Amkor Technology. “These customers want to place their chiplets on an interposer, then the full module is placed on a flip-chip substrate package. We also have customers who say they either don’t want to use a silicon interposer or cannot secure them. They prefer an RDL interconnect with S-SWIFT or with S-Connect, which serves as an interposer in very dense areas.”

But with at least a third of these leading designs only for internal use, and the remainder confined to large processor vendors, the rest of the market hasn’t caught up yet. Once it does, that will drive economies of scale and open the door to more complete assembly design kits, commercial chiplets, and more options for customization.

“Everybody is generally going in the same direction,” said Fuentes. “But not everything is the same height. HBMs are pre-packaged and are taller than ICs. HBMs could have 12 or 16 ICs stacked inside. It makes a difference from a co-planarity and thermal standpoint, and metal balancing on different layers. So now vendors are having a hard time processing all this data because suddenly you have these huge databases that are a lot bigger than the standard packaging databases. We’re seeing bridges, S-Connect, SWIFT, and then S-SWIFT. This is new territory, and we’re seeing a performance gap in the packaging tools. There’s work that needs to be done here, but software vendors have been very proactive in finding solutions. Additionally, these packages need to be routed. There is limited automated routing, so a good amount of interactive routing is still required, so it takes a lot of time.”

Fig. 4: Packaging roadmap showing bridge and hybrid bonding connections for modules and chiplets, respectively. Source: Amkor Technology

What’s missing
The key challenges ahead for 3.5D are proven reliability and customizability — requirements that are seemingly contradictory, and which are beyond the control of any single company. There are four major pieces to making all of this work.

EDA is the first important piece of the puzzle, and the challenge extends just beyond a single chip. “The IC designers have to think about a lot of things concurrently, like thermal, signal integrity, and power integrity,” said Keith Lanier, technical product management director at Synopsys. “But even beyond that, there’s a new paradigm in terms of how people need to work. Traditional packaging folks and IC designers need to work closely together to make these 3.5D designs successful.”

It’s not just about doing more with the same or fewer people. It’s doing more with different people, too. “It’s understanding the architecture definition, the functional requirements, constraints, and having those well-defined,” Lanier said. “But then it’s also feasibility, which includes partitioning and technology selection, and then prototyping and floor-planning. This is lots and lots of data that is required to be generated, and you need analysis-driven exploration, design, and implementation. And AI will be required to help designers and system design teams manage the sheer complexity of these 3.5D designs.”

Process/assembly design kits are a second critical piece, and this is likely to be split between the foundries and the OSATs. “If the customer wants a silicon interposer for a 2.5D package, it would be up to the foundry that’s going to manufacture the interposer to provide the PDK. We would provide the PDK for all of our products, such as S-SWIFT and S-Connect,” said Amkor’s Fuentes.

Setting realistic parameters is the third piece of the puzzle. While the type of processing elements and some of the analog functions may change — particularly those involving power and communication — most of the components will remain the same. That determines what can be pre-built and pre-tested, and the speed and ease of assembly.

“A lot of the standards that are being deployed, like UCIe interfaces and HBM interfaces are heading to where 20% is customization and 80% is on the shelf,” said Intel’s O’Buckley. “But we aren’t there today. At the scale that our customers are deploying these products, the economics of spending that extra time to optimize an implementation is a decimal point. It’s not leveraging 80/20 standards. We’ll get there. But most of these designs you can count on your fingers and toes because of the cost and scale required to do them. And until the infrastructure for standards-based chiplets gets mature, the barrier of entry for companies that want to do this without that scale is just too high. Still, it is going to happen.”

Ensuring processes are consistent is the fourth piece of the puzzle. The tools and the individual processes don’t need to change. “The customer has a ‘target’ for the outcome they want for a particular tool, which typically is a critical dimension measured by a metrology tool,” said David Park, vice president of marketing at Tignis. “As long as there is some ‘measurement’ that determines the goodness of some outcome, which typically is the result of a process step, we can either predict the bad outcome — and engineers have to take some corrective or preventive action — or we can optimize the recipe of that tool in real time to keep the result in the range they want.”

Park noted there is a recipe that controls the inputs. “The tool does whatever it is supposed to do,” he said. “Then you measure the output to see how far you deviated from the acceptable output.”

The challenge is that inside of a 3.5D system, what is considered acceptable output is still being defined. There are many processes with different tolerances. Defining what is consistent enough will require a broad understanding of how all the pieces work together under specific workloads, and where the potential weaknesses are that need to be adjusted.

“One of the problems here is as these densities get higher and the copper pillars get smaller, the amount of space you need between the pillar and the substrate have to be highly controlled,” said Dick Otte, president and CEO of Promex. “There’s a conflict — not so much with how you fabricate the chip, because it usually has the copper pillars on it — but with the substrate. A lot of the substrate technologies are not inherently flat. It’s the same issue with glass. You’ve got a really nice flat piece of glass. The first thing you’re going to do is put down a layer of metal and you’re going to pattern it. And then you put down a layer of dielectric, and suddenly you’ve got a lump where the conductor goes. And now, where do you put the contact points? So you always have the one plan which is going to be the contact point where all the pillars come in. But what if I only need one layer and I don’t need three?”

Conclusion
For the past decade, the chip industry has been trying to figure out a way to balance faster processing, domain-specific designs, limited reticle size, and the enormous cost of scaling an SoC. After investigating nearly every possible packaging approach, interconnect, power delivery method, substrate and dielectric material, 3.5D has emerged as the front runner — at least for now.

This approach provides the chip industry with a common thread on which to begin developing assembly design kits, commercial chiplets, and to fill in the missing tools and services throughout the supply chain. Whether this ultimately becomes a springboard for full 3D-ICs, or a platform on which to use 3D stacking more effectively, remains to be seen. But for the foreseeable future, large chipmakers have converged on a path forward to provide orders of magnitude performance improvements and a way to contain costs. The rest of the industry will be working to smooth out that path for years to come.

Related Reading
Intel Vs. Samsung Vs. TSMC
Foundry competition heats up in three dimensions and with novel technologies as planar scaling benefits diminish.
3D Metrology Meets Its Match In 3D Chips And Packages
Next-generation tools take on precision challenges in three dimensions.
Design Flow Challenged By 3D-IC Process, Thermal Variation
Rethinking traditional workflows by shifting left can help solve persistent problems caused by process and thermal variations.
Floor-Planning Evolves Into The Chiplet Era
Automatically mitigating thermal issues becomes a top priority in heterogeneous designs.

The post 3.5D: The Great Compromise appeared first on Semiconductor Engineering.

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A Pixel 6 can stream music using just 440mW of power. Ultra mobile productivity includes efficiency, especially if you’re traveling. I’ve tested many many devices over the last 15 years and we’ve come a long way. Where I was impressed at a laptop that allowed me to write articles at under 10W or stream audio using 6W, I’m now seeing a lot better. Smartphones have, by requirement, led in terms of efficiency although the huge density increase in batteries over the last ten years and efficient screens have helped to […]

Chip aging is becoming a much bigger concern inside of data centers, where it can impact server uptime, utilization rates, and the amount of energy needed to drive signals and cool entire server racks.

Aging in chips is the result of both higher logic utilization and increasing transistor density. This is problematic for data centers, in general, but especially for AI chips where digital logic is expected to run at maximum speed. That generates more heat, which becomes harder to dissipate as the number specialized and general-purpose processing elements per square millimeter of silicon continues to rise. Heat typically gets trapped between the fins of finFETs and gate-all-around FETs, accelerating electromigration and reducing the time it takes for dielectrics to break down. It also can cause warpage, which can rupture the bonds and contacts between different components in an advanced package or on a PCB.

For data centers, that creates a number of challenges:

• Thermal management: This requires a deep understanding of workloads and the resulting transient thermal gradients as processing is load-balanced on-chip, between chips or chiplets, and between servers;
• More data: Data from sensors everywhere, along with larger training sets, all need to be processed faster than in the past to keep up with the flood of data, but all of that needs to happen in the same or smaller footprint without overheating any part of a device, and
• In-circuit monitoring: Sensors can be added into chips to detect variations in heat and data speeds in different paths, but it’s much more difficult to keep track of tens of thousands of these monitors as they collect data from heterogeneous processing elements, each of which can age at different rates depending on process variation, defectivity, varying workloads, and ambient thermal conditions.

“Servers are much more capable today than they were 10 years ago, and the issue is that power hasn’t scaled like it used to,” said Steven Woo, Rambus fellow and distinguished inventor. “Now, if you want to do lots more work in your server, you have to burn more power to do it. Twenty years ago, a server might dissipate a couple hundred watts. But with the latest servers that NVIDIA just announced around Grace Blackwell, the whole rack is 120 kilowatts, and the individual servers are many kilowatts. Just delivering power into those racks is causing changes in the infrastructure in the industry. Now that you have to bring in and dissipate more power in a small space, you get all kinds of interesting things that could happen over time. The heat that’s being dissipated can have effects on the chip, and you have to worry sometimes about thermal cycling where, as the chip is doing a lot of work, maybe part of the chip stops and then it does more work. You get these rapid cycles of dissipating a lot of power, then not, then dissipating a lot of power, then not. That cycling causes local heating and cooling, leading to thermal stresses, and this impacts all chips, including memory.”

As a result, everyone from the data center manager to the chip architect now has to understand how a chip behaves in the field, and how increasingly customized chip and system architectures will function over time. Downtime is costly for a data center, but under-utilization and reduced performance also carries a high price tag. That, in turn, affects how much margin is considered essential, such as extra data paths if some of them are fully or partially closed off by electromigration, and how that margin will impact performance, power, and area/cost over a chip’s projected lifetime — especially in a heterogeneous design with specialized compute elements.

“When it comes to the hyper-scalers and high powered, highly customized, heterogeneous chips for various different workloads, these chips are on 24/7, so consistent uptime is critical,” said Dan Lee, product management director at Cadence. “Since all of these chips are done at the really advanced nodes, with the smaller device sizes, more developers are looking to do aging analysis, and derive the wear and tear so they can see if the chip is going to last a year or five years. At the same time, an important consideration is also thermal — especially when we’re talking about these heterogeneous integrations, and you don’t really get the thermal conductivity that you would in a straightforward, monolithic design. There’s a bit more thought or planning that needs to be a part of this because aging and heating are related. All things being equal, if you’re operating in a very hot environment, you’re going to expect a lower lifespan.”

Still, determining how much shorter that lifespan will be isn’t always a precise calculation. “Data center SoCs that execute mission-critical workloads need to provide scalable visibility, predict problems before they occur, provide deep-dive analyses into problems, and be optimized to increase longevity of investment,” said Padmakumar Karthik, senior technology manager at Arm. “Data center diagnostic patterns are often deployed to measure the health of an SoC post-manufacturing to prevent silent data corruption (SDC) issues. But on-chip sensors provide an additional layer of insights, detecting droops or aging or thermal events on-chip, all of which can cause SDC incidents. For this reason, scalable, customizable sensor frameworks that can monitor and adapt throughout the useful life of the device, enabling continuous design optimization and preventive maintenance, will be increasingly important.”

There are multiple ways to achieve this, but each data center can be very different. In some cases, chips are designed by systems companies for internal use. And in most cases, there is a mix of different hardware and software, not all of which is state-of-the-art. “Many data centers have legacy infrastructure that may not be inherently designed for optimal power efficiency,” noted Noam Brousard, vice president of systems at proteanTecs, in a recent blog. “Upgrading or retrofitting such infrastructure poses challenges in achieving comprehensive power optimization.”

Even within a single rack, stresses can vary greatly from one server to the next, and from one chip to the next even in the same server. “You can imagine when you have a very big chip, toward the edges of the chip it will expand more than in a small chip, and that can add stress,” said Rambus’ Woo. “You have to really be careful about how you cool things, and memory is no different. You have very specific things you worry about with memory, like the ability to retain data, depending on how hot the chip is.”

In addition, as chips age, parameters drift. Marc Swinnen, director of product marketing in Ansys’ semiconductor division, said the traditional approach has been to use a library that’s characterized as a brand new chip. “The library is characterized at 1 year, 5 years, 10 years, 15 years, and you can run all your analysis multiple times with these different aged libraries. That sounds good on paper, and that’s what a lot of people do, but the problem is that not all parts of the chip age at the same rate. This is why aging is often associated with activity and temperature. Some parts of the chip are more active and hotter than other parts of the chip, so the aging time runs differently for different parts. This means you want to apply some of the old library to some parts of the chip, and the younger library to other parts of the chip, because if signals run between them you have setup and hold issues. If everything slows down at the same time — or one slows down and the other one doesn’t — you’re going to get mismatches, and that’s the difficulty. At the bottom level, it’s easy. Every gate is assigned its right age. That’s simple. You do an analysis with every gate. But how do you assign the age to every gate? Where do you get that information from? You need a lot of realistic activity, and then predict that over the lifespan and with temperature. That’s the problem. How do you actually construct this aging map? Once you have it, the analysis is not that hard.”

Aging maps are application- and workload-specific. Every chip will age differently depending on the functions it performs.

But aging is just one of many factors that affect data center uptime. “When we look at data center, we look at the whole application first, then whittle it down to what that means for chips and packages,” said Kelly Morgan, senior principal application engineer at Ansys. “From the mechanical reliability lens of the data center operation, we go through thermal cycling, obviously. We’re in a controlled environment. But what does that influence? How does that influence the integrity of the chips as you go through thermal cycles? Typically, we’ll look at things like solder fatigue and other effects.”

Another factor to consider is shipping and handling, which can affect the aging of a chip, package, and board.

“Even before the device is put in place, there are opportunities for vibration,” Morgan said. “You might hit something, which is a bit of a shock. We have customers who are looking at things like drop, shock, and vibration, and they have goals they need to test to. Typically, the standard process is to do a lot of physical testing. Now as you can imagine, that can be pretty challenging. You have to be pretty far along in the design process before you really start to go and test, and if there’s an issue, then you’ve got to go back and retest. Early simulation helps here, especially for those larger-scale events, and that comes down to the chassis, the board, to all the components, including the ICs.”

Fig. 1: Components of complete electronic system analysis. Source: Ansys

Quality control remains a big challenge when it comes to mechanical stresses that can affect aging. Adam Cron, distinguished architect at Synopsys, pointed to a recent Intel white paper, which noted that at the current acceptable defectivity rates, one core fails every two days. To account for this, Cron noted that certain commercial tools support in-system delay testing in a BiST mode. By adding specific IP, any ATPG patterns could be added to that. (Intel’s paper said its solution only applies to stuck-at testing.)

“In very large, millions-of-cores data center-type environments, the implication is that you’d better be ready,” Cron said. “One of the things they were talking about in this paper was in-system scan. Intel was bringing a database of test patterns in, and then applying it in-system after isolating a core. And then, upon a failure, they’d quarantine and move on. But the data centers are apparently running out of that opportunistic time slot to do any of this. We’ve heard some interesting conversations about the fact that people do run a lot of things during certain times. However, other times are cheaper, so all the holes are just getting filled in terms of runtime. Monitors are certainly something to look at, but monitors are looking at systemic degradation. That’s known, if you will. And so as things degrade, V_min will change, maybe frequency will change. And they’ll be on a pace. They can figure out when to do that. That’s easy enough to figure out. However, if there’s a marginality or some broken component in there, it is not up to the tool to find that. And frankly, the in-system scan wasn’t addressing all components on the die. It was only up to like 80% of stuck-at coverage, which isn’t that much, especially when you’re not looking at all of the pieces inside the die. The point is, there are still opportunities to do better.”

Cron noted that one big systems company suggested a dual-core lockstep mechanism, starting out the data center in dual-core lock-step mode for X number of months. “When it looks like you’ve squeezed the major part of the curve out, in terms of finding these defective components, then unlock them, double your capacity, run like that for a while, and periodically hook some back up again. That means everything is utilized, at least. Of course, some are working at half capacity here and there, but it’s not the whole die. And there are some implications there from a design standpoint, at least for the hardware, but also possibly the operating system, depending on who decides what physical core is used versus what virtual core is used.”

Approaches to measuring aging
Any discussion around aging circuits really boils down to extending the life of the machines in the data center, and not getting caught by surprise when failures occur.

“How do you do that? You have to measure the aging of those machines,” said Neil Hand, director of marketing, IC segment at Siemens EDA. “Right now, if you speak to the CIOs of these big companies with big data centers, they say, ‘We’ve got to get rid of the machines after three years because we can’t risk it going down.’ If you look at embedded analytics capabilities, you can start to embed aging monitors in those devices, you can start to monitor those in real time. It doesn’t look that different than what it does from an automotive perspective. It’s all the same technologies, effectively, but you’re monitoring them. And then you can say, ‘We’re now at 90% of our life for this server.’ We can then just replace that server.”

This feeds into corporate goals around sustainability, as well. “It comes down to building the best thing to begin with, then building it with design for manufacturing in mind so that you don’t get waste during manufacturing, achieve better yields, and finally extend the life of products and build them in environmentally-sustainable ways,” Hand said. “If you can extend the data center lifecycle from three years to five years, that’s big. And especially if you start going to these high-performance, application-specific type of clusters, you may not need to change them as often, because if the underlying capabilities aren’t changing, that might drive the cycling of it. In the case of a biological computer, if there’s no new change to the underlying protein folding mechanisms, you might say, ‘We don’t need a new compute platform. This is really good.”

The longer the product life can be extended, the better. Design for aging is a matter of, first, performing the aging analysis with the foundry models. “Run the simulations and observe the effects,” said Cadence’s Lee. “When you’re doing the simulation, you want to have the right mission profiles, so you come up with an accurate prediction of how your device is going to behave after a certain number of years in deployment. You may want to combine that with thermal analysis, for example, because how that aging is going to behave will depend on what temperature this design is going to be working at. You may think it’s 22 degrees Celsius, but maybe through some thermal analysis you realize it’s actually going to be operating at 35 or 40 degrees most of the time. That may change the outcome of your aging analysis.”

In terms of the associated thermal analysis, this can extend beyond a single device. “It’s also how that heat is moving,” Lee said. “Let’s say you have this integrated design, where you have some power devices alongside some logic, or some other functionality that is lower power. What you may want to understand is, if those bandgaps or power circuits are generating a lot of heat, that may be shifting over into other parts of your design. So when you run your aging analysis, you may assume that you’re running at 25 degrees, whereas the power devices are at 40 or 45 degrees. They’re on the same chip, they’re very close to each other, and you have to understand how much of that heat is moving over to your logic and what that’s going to bring the temperature up to. You want to know that so you can perform the aging analysis based on that higher temperature.”

Another consideration is combining aging analysis and interconnect parasitics, which is especially relevant for advanced nodes due to the parasitics in the interconnect. “They’re dominant when it comes to performance and functionality,” Lee added. “So when thinking about aging, you also have to think about it being an aged device that has to push the electrons through this interconnect. That’s a pretty heavy load. When you’re doing the aging analysis, you probably will have to be doing it with extracted parasitics. You just can’t do it on a pure schematic design. It doesn’t give you enough detail about what’s really happening physically. This may be included in the aging analysis tool. When most people talk about aging, they may not think about the parasitic aspect to it.”

Combating aging, thermal in memory
While standards don’t work in custom silicon, they do work for some standard components in those devices, such as memory. Over the past 10 to 15 years, memory standards have started to address the impact of heat.

“If you start to exceed certain temperature limits, you’ve got to refresh the device more frequently because the charge can leak off the cells more quickly,” said Rambus’ Woo. “So there are temperature-dependent refresh rates. There are other things that can be exacerbated, like the capacitors are getting smaller, they’re holding fewer electrons because there are so many more of them on a chip now, so we’ve seen memories adopt on-die error correction. This on-die error correction is something that is hidden from the outside world. In many cases, you don’t even know an error has occurred and been corrected on the chip. Those kinds of technologies become even more important now because the temperatures can be higher.”

There also is growing demand for more telemetry to provide monitoring information. “You just want to know if anything is overheating,” said Woo. “Does something seem like it’s malfunctioning? The data center manager will get regular updates about the status of the major components of the system. A lot of boards now in servers have baseboard management controllers (BMCs), which are little chips that sit on each board and are responsible for, among other things, reporting back the health of that board when a server might have five or six boards. We’re frequently seeing more of these BMC chips.”

Design for aging
While the goal is to be able to guarantee a certain lifetime for the chips in a data center, the challenges for achieving that are expanding. “There’s a growing list of things that can be harmful to devices over their lifetime,” Woo said. “It’s a balance between not adding too much cost, even though you have to increase the reliability and maybe add new features, and all of these things are in play with each other.”

Whether it is liquid cooling or higher levels of RAS ECC in the system, there is no single best answer for every application. In general, the industry is moving toward higher reliability and increasing resilience, but there are many ways to get there and challenges with each of them.

“Just as 15 years ago we didn’t necessarily always think we had to talk about power, now we have to talk about it all the time,” Woo said. “The same thing is going to be true for resilience and reliability. It’s going to be required to become part of the way people think about architectures, and part of that is how the memory system improves its reliability. You can’t really do anything unless you can compute on some data, and you have to make sure that data is reliable. It will touch how memory is stored in a DRAM. It will touch how memory is communicated across links. And it even will touch how processors manipulate data once they get a hold of it in their caches, and in the compute pipelines. Also, one of the key things people will worry about is how much of that susceptibility is brought about by age-related issues, like heating cycles, etc.”

Finally, there are even issues around the quality of the power that comes into a system. “The servers get noise on the power rails, and it’s a balance between how much money you’re willing to pay for the power delivery versus the quality of power,” said Woo. “You have to be tolerant of those kinds of things, too. Power management becomes more challenging, as well as the amount of power that these systems are using today. NVIDIA systems bring 48-volt power into the racks, and there is talk about even higher voltage levels. Those changes in infrastructure can all impact heat, and can age components differently.”

The post Chip Aging Becoming Key Factor In Data Center Economics appeared first on Semiconductor Engineering.

A Pixel 6 can stream music using just 440mW of power. Ultra mobile productivity includes efficiency, especially if you’re traveling. I’ve tested many many devices over the last 15 years and we’ve come a long way. Where I was impressed at a laptop that allowed me to write articles at under 10W or stream audio using 6W, I’m now seeing a lot better. Smartphones have, by requirement, led in terms of efficiency although the huge density increase in batteries over the last ten years and efficient screens have helped to […]

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A Pixel 6 can stream music using just 440mW of power. Ultra mobile productivity includes efficiency, especially if you’re traveling. I’ve tested many many devices over the last 15 years and we’ve come a long way. Where I was impressed at a laptop that allowed me to write articles at under 10W or stream audio using 6W, I’m now seeing a lot better. Smartphones have, by requirement, led in terms of efficiency although the huge density increase in batteries over the last ten years and efficient screens have helped to […]

A Pixel 6 can stream music using just 440mW of power. Ultra mobile productivity includes efficiency, especially if you’re traveling. I’ve tested many many devices over the last 15 years and we’ve come a long way. Where I was impressed at a laptop that allowed me to write articles at under 10W or stream audio using 6W, I’m now seeing a lot better. Smartphones have, by requirement, led in terms of efficiency although the huge density increase in batteries over the last ten years and efficient screens have helped to […]

A Pixel 6 can stream music using just 440mW of power. Ultra mobile productivity includes efficiency, especially if you’re traveling. I’ve tested many many devices over the last 15 years and we’ve come a long way. Where I was impressed at a laptop that allowed me to write articles at under 10W or stream audio using 6W, I’m now seeing a lot better. Smartphones have, by requirement, led in terms of efficiency although the huge density increase in batteries over the last ten years and efficient screens have helped to […]